Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge. (Adopted by the International Dyslexia Association Board of Directors, November 12, 2002)

“We know why dyslexics, no matter how bright and motivated, experience reading difficulties. Dyslexia is a complex problem that has its roots in the very basic brain systems that allow man to understand and express language. By discovering how a disruption in these fundamental neural circuits for coding language gives rise to a reading impairment, we have been able to understand how the tentacles of the disorder reach out from deep within the brain and affect not only how a person reads but surprisingly, a range of other important functions as well, including the ability to spell words, to retrieve words, to articulate words, and to remember certain facts.” (Overcoming Dyslexia, Sally Shaywitz)

“Research pinpoints the weakness at the lowest level of the language system. The phoneme is the fundamental element of the language system, the essential building block of all spoken and written words…the smallest unit of speech that distinguishes one word from another…In children with dyslexia, the phonemes are less well developed…Dyslexic children…have difficulty developing an awareness that spoken and written words are comprised of these phonemes or building blocks.” (Sally Shaywitz)

“One of the most enduring misconceptions is that dyslexic children see letters and words backwards and that reversals (writing letters and words backward) are an invariable sign…there is no such evidence…” (Sally Shaywitz)

The exact causes of dyslexia are still not completely clear, but anatomical and brain imagery studies show differences in the way the brain of a person with dyslexia develops and functions. Moreover, most people with dyslexia have been found to have problems with identifying the separate speech sounds within a word and/or learning how letters represent those sounds, a key factor in their reading difficulties. Dyslexia is not due to either lack of intelligence or desire to learn; with appropriate teaching methods, students with dyslexia can learn successfully.  The International Dyslexia Association

“The specific signs of dyslexia…will vary according to the age and educational level of that person… The key is knowing how to recognize them at different periods during development.” (Sally Shaywitz)

Common Risk Factors Associated with Dyslexia

If the following behaviors are unexpected for an individual’s age, educational level, or cognitive abilities, they may be risk factors associated with dyslexia. A learner with dyslexia usually exhibits several of these behaviors that persist over time and interfere with his/her learning. A family history of dyslexia may be present; in fact, recent studies reveal that the whole spectrum of reading disabilities is strongly determined by genetic predispositions (inherited aptitudes) (Olson, Keenan, Byrne, & Samuelsson, 2014).

Preschool

• Delay in learning to talk
• Difficulty with rhyming 9
• Difficulty pronouncing words (e.g., “pusgetti” for “spaghetti,” “mawn lower” for “lawn mower”)
• Poor auditory memory for nursery rhymes and chants
• Difficulty in adding new vocabulary words
• Inability to recall the right word (word retrieval)
• Trouble learning and naming letters and numbers and remembering the letters in his/ her name
• Aversion to print (e.g., doesn’t enjoy following along if book is read aloud)

Kindergarten and First Grade

• Difficulty breaking words into smaller parts (syllables) (e.g., “baseball” can be pulled apart into “base” “ ball” or “napkin” can be pulled apart into “nap” “kin”)
• Difficulty identifying and manipulating sounds in syllables (e.g., “man” sounded out as /m/ /a/ /n)
• Difficulty remembering the names of letters and recalling their corresponding sounds
• Difficulty decoding single words (reading single words in isolation)
• Difficulty spelling words the way they sound (phonetically) or remembering letter sequences in very common words seen often in print ( e.g., “sed” for “said”)

 Second Grade and Third Grade

Many of the previously described behaviors remain problematic along with the following:

• Difficulty recognizing common sight words (e.g., “to,” “said,” “been”)
• Difficulty decoding single words
• Difficulty recalling the correct sounds for letters and letter patterns in reading
• Difficulty connecting speech sounds with appropriate letter or letter combinations and omitting letters in words for spelling (e.g., “after” spelled “eftr”)
• Difficulty reading fluently (e.g., slow, inaccurate, and/or without expression)
• Difficulty decoding unfamiliar words in sentences using knowledge of phonics
• Reliance on picture clues, story theme, or guessing at words
• Difficulty with written expression

Fourth Grade through Sixth Grade

Many of the previously described behaviors remain problematic along with the following:

• Difficulty reading aloud (e.g., fear of reading aloud in front of classmates)
• Avoidance of reading (e.g., particularly for pleasure)
• Acquisition of less vocabulary due to reduced independent reading
• Use of less complicated words in writing that are easier to spell than more appropriate words (e.g., “big” instead of “enormous”)
• Reliance on listening rather than reading for comprehension

Middle School and High School

Many of the previously described behaviors remain problematic along with the following:

• Difficulty with the volume of reading and written work
• Frustration with the amount of time required and energy expended for reading
• Difficulty with written assignments
• Tendency to avoid reading (particularly for pleasure)
• Difficulty learning a foreign language

Postsecondary

Some learners will not be identified prior to entering college as having dyslexia. The early years of reading difficulties evolve into slow, labored reading fluency. Many learners will experience extreme frustration and fatigue due to the increasing demands of reading as the result of dyslexia. In making a diagnosis for dyslexia, a learner’s reading history, familial/genetic predisposition, and assessment history are critical. Many of the previously described behaviors may remain problematic along with the following:

• Difficulty pronouncing names of people and places or parts of words
• Difficulty remembering names of people and places
• Difficulty with word retrieval
• Difficulty with spoken vocabulary
• Difficulty completing the reading demands for multiple course requirements
• Difficulty with note-taking
• Difficulty with written production
• Difficulty remembering sequences (e.g., mathematical and/or scientific formulas) (The Dyslexia Handbook, TEA)

Difficulty with written language

• Difficulty putting ideas on paper
• Many spelling mistakes
• May do well on weekly spelling tests, but there are many spelling mistakes in daily work
• Difficulty in proofreading

Difficulty with handwriting

• Unsure of right or left handedness
• Poor or slow handwriting
• Messy and unorganized papers
• Difficulty copying
• Poor fine motor skills

Difficulty with math

• Difficulty counting accurately
• Difficulty memorizing math facts
• Difficulty copying math problems and organizing written work
• Many calculation errors
• Difficulty retaining math vocabulary and/or concepts

Information is from The International Dyslexia Association

The impact that dyslexia has is different for each person and depends on the severity of the condition md the effectiveness of instruction or remediation. The core difficulty is with word recognition and reading fluency, spelling, and writing. Some individuals with dyslexia manage to learn early reading and spelling tasks, especially with excellent instruction, but later experience their most debilitating problems when more complex language skills are required, such as grammar, understanding textbook material, and writing essays.

People with dyslexia can also have problems with spoken language, even after they have been exposed to good language models in their homes and good language instruction in school. They may find it difficult to express themselves clearly, or to fully comprehend what others mean when they speak. Such language problems are often difficult to recognize, but they can lead to major problems in school, in the workplace, and in relating to other people. The effects of dyslexia reach well beyond the classroom.

Dyslexia can also affect a person's self-image. Learners with dyslexia often end up feeling less capable than they actually are. After experiencing a great deal of stress due to academic problems, a learner may become discouraged about continuing in school.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act 2004 (IDEA), Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) define the rights of students with dyslexia and other specific learning disabilities. These individuals are legally entitled to special services to help them overcome and accommodate their learning problems. Such services include education programs designed to meet the needs of these students. The Acts also protect people with dyslexia against unfair and illegal discrimination.  The International Dyslexia Association